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alently ambiguous sentence in any other language. In other words, the ambiguity results from a peculiarity in the transformational rules of English.
alently ambiguous sentence in any other language. In other words, the ambiguity results from a peculiarity in the transformational rules of English.
Transformations,
ther., allow us to express the fact that one basic meaning can have several paraphrases expressed in different surface structures
and that an ambiguous sentence, represented by one surface structure, has two
or more basic meanings that are represented by different deep structures.
TWO OBLIGATORY TRANSFOROTIONS
One
transformation applied to all sentences is the flip-flop
(FF) rule, by
which certain endings are attached to the verbal forms that follow them. The
flip-flop rule may be-generalized as
FF
Rule: Affix + Verbal Verbal + Affix
Condition:
Constituents affected by FF may undergo the rule only once.
Affix may be Tense, -en, or -ing. Verbal
may be V. M, be, or have. (Double-stemmed arrows, signify a
transformational rule.) For an example of how the rule operates, consider the
deep structure presented in Figure 10-1. FF may operate at two points: at Pres
+have and-at -en + see, which are in the correct order for
application of the rule. Thus,
Deep structure: a
girl Pres have -en see the man After FF: a girl have Pres see -en
the man
Notice that we imposed the condition that the FF rule can
apply to each
relevant constituent only once; otherwise, there is nothing to prevent Pres +see from being flip-flopped.
This condition thus prevents the generating of such an ungrammatical
sentence as *A girl have sees -en the man.
As
the FF rule illustrates, the statement of a transformation involves two parts: a structural description and a
structural change. The structural
description specifies the
structure that must be present in order for the rule to apply (for example,
Affix + Verbal). The structural change indicates how the structure is
affected by the rule (for example, Verbal +
Affix). Conditions on the application of the rule may or may not be
present, and linguists have recently been working hard to eliminate conditions
wherever possible.
It is also
important to note that Affix and Verbal, as stated, are somewhat artificial-
categories, since they do not appear in the deep structure tree of Figure 10-1.
We use these categories because they allow us to state the rule more easily;
nevertheless, their use must be considered a flaw in the theory, which
ultimately must be corrected.
After the application
of FF, only one other rule need be invoked to transform the deep structure in Figure 10-1. This rule, which may be called the lexical-formation (LF)
rule, requires that the lexicon be
consulted to determine the final
appeaiance of the
nouns and verbs in surface structure.
This rule eliminates all terms that are not actually words of the surface structure; it tells us that have
+ Pres is has
in the third person
singular and have
otherwise and that see +-en is seen, as
follows:
By LF: a girl has
seen the man
The FF and LF rules are the only transformational
rules that must be applied in order to derive all
surface structures. Of course,
many other transformational rules apply under certain conditions. Ideally, the conditions of application should be apparent
in the deep structure, although it does not always work out that well.
IMPERATIVES. QUESTIONS,
AND NEGATIONS
The formation of imperatives, questions, and
negations involves operations that
are signaled by constituents in the deep structure. The first rule of the
phrase-structure grammar must be altered at this point to introduce
these constituents:
S—>
|
(timP }) + (Neg) NP + Aux + VP Ques In other words, a sentence still
consists of an NP, an Aux, and a VP; but
it may also optionally be a question. an
imPerative, a negative, a negative-question,
or a negative-imperative. Because Imp, Ques, and Neg are optional, it is still possible that none is realized, in which case
the sentence will be declarative and positive.
Consider how the imperative sentence Wash
car! is generated. The underlying, or deep, structure for this
sentence must include the constituent
Imp, the subject NP you, the Modal will,
and the present tense. This analysis is supported by the existence
of a sentence like Wash the car, won't you?. in Which von and will "surface." Further evidence for an underlying subject you
in imperatives is 'seen
in sentences such as Watch
yourvell. The first phrase-structure
will now produce the structure:
Imp NP Aux VP
FIGURE 10-2
Deep Structure for the Sentence Wash the car!
S
S
.------;-----7
Imp• -NP Aux VP
I
/ \ /\
N Tense Modal V NP
N Tense Modal V NP
I I I
Lex[N] Lex[Mi Lex[V) Det N
1 1 I I
Lex[Det] LexiNI
Lex[Det] LexiNI
I I
you Pres will cash the - cal
The constituent Imp
then triggers the imperative transformation, which has the following
effect:
Imperative transformation: Imp + you +will 0
In
other words. the_constituents Imp. you, and will are deleted.
The FF rule then switches the order of the constituents Pies + wash, giving
wash +.pres.
The LF rule then tells us that wash + Pres is wash, thus generating the sentence Wash the car!
TRANSFORMATIONS WITH EMBEDDED SENTENCES
The sentences discussed this far have been simple,
one-clause sentences, such as the follOwing:
I. The bell rang.
2.
A student
entered the building-.
3.
The child
likes the horse.
4.
The horse
roams on the farm.
But
many sentences contain more than one clause; for example,
5. The
bell rang and a student entered the building.
In order to generate sentences like this, we need the
modified phrase-structure rule:
S —0 S (Conj Sl
where Conj represents
and, or, and
so on. Thus, the deep structure of sentence 5 would appear as in Figure
10-3.
Figure 10-3 shows a relatively
straightforward-looking deep structure: two sentences are joined by and. But
in order to generate sentences like
FIGURE 10-3
Deep Structure jOr Sentence 5: The bell rang and a
student entered the building..
Conj S
|
||||||
I Ns
|
I
|
|||||
NP
|
Aux VP
|
Lex[Conj NP Aux VP
|
||||
\
|
/\ I \
|
|||||
Det N
|
Tense
V
|
Dct N Tense
|
V
|
NP
|
||
LexfDetj Lex/ N I
|
LextVI
|
Lex Dell LexIN/
|
LexIVL Det
|
N
|
||
I
|
I
|
|||||
The h 41 Past ri and
Lex' Det1 Lex1N
Atudent Past enter the building
6. The
child likes the horse that roams on the farm. phrase-structure rule 2 must be
revised as follows: NP--*tDet)+N i-(S)
The deep structure of sentence 6
appears in Figure 10-4. In this structure,
one sentence is contained within another. The sentence The horse
roams on the farm appears under the category label S. which appears directly under the category label NP. Such
a sentence is called an embedded sentence.
In both revised phrase-structure-rules. the symbol S
appears to the right of the arrow, allowing
simple sentences to be contained within more complex sentences. In
theory. these rules could be applied infinitely producing sentences like .
7.
John has a cat and Mary has a dog and Phil
has a canary and . . .
8.
The student likes the professor who likes the
administrator who likes
his mother who . . .
—Such-rules-that can apply over and over again are
called recursive. and they permit an infinite number of sentences of
infinite length to be generated in a language.
The deep
structure presented in Figure 10-4 is transformed into sentence 6 through the application of the relative transformation, which
moves the second, identical occurrence of the NP the horse out
, of the
embedded sentence to the position of the horse in the main sentence,
leaving only one occurrence of the horse. Then an appropriate _relative
pronoun — in this case that — is substituted into the position from
which the second occurrence of the horse was moved.
Materi Morphology
4/
5
Oleh
Azhar
